圣诞假期在碧水蓝天环保群里读到一篇令人感动和引人思考的故事：<他曾是年薪几十万的微软工程师，现在却在成都街头收破烂……> https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s%3F_ ... %23rd

听了他们的计划: 用十年的时间， 让一千万个中国家庭，参与垃圾分类，用更加绿色的方式生活。 觉得他们的理想很实在。我们这些来自世界各地有心为环保做些事情的同学可以向汪剑超他们学习. 我们的环保strategy， 应该是精英和草根两条腿走路。

非 常喜欢汪剑超, 觉得他虚怀若谷, 脚踏实地. “不要抱怨，每个人做应该做的事。就是所谓的知行合一，哪怕这个行，是很微小的行动。”不要抱怨， 不要问国家和政府为我们做了什么， 而是看我们自己怎么能从我做起， 从身边做起, 每个人做一点点就是在改变世界。

我们应该邀请汪剑超入群, 讨论草根环保运动的发展壮大. 和80后90后联手，利用网络, 最大化地调动中国的每个公民改变环保意识，加入环保的行列. 鼓励公民监督和提出好的，环保改进建议。想办法鼓励对环保有成就的个体和企业.

另一篇有关台北垃圾处理的成功经验也很有启发. 用了MBA的5-WHY方法去寻元， 找到最有效的解决方案。
<牛逼的思维方式都是倒逼出来的>https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s%3F_ ... %23rd

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圣诞假期在碧水蓝天环保群里读到一篇令人感动和引人思考的故事：<他曾是年薪几十万的微软工程师，现在却在成都街头收破烂……> https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MjM5Njc5MjEwMA==&mid=2655574806&idx=3&sn=d86395146824b8aa5219a8bf539e7e85&chksm=bd5fa95d8a28204bb3fab006a80c6d664c6cb9e1562194c4c63fc824af9a650d3ebe514aa233&mpshare=1&scene=1&srcid=1225QELb7wGztQgKCDRogv5W&pass_ticket=tV0MLExqHw5kstmGiLV21Z8qlTgMHY1v2GvfHE52JptVqd%2FvilqmGCRSfQwtTdnJ#rd

听了他们的计划: 用十年的时间， 让一千万个中国家庭，参与垃圾分类，用更加绿色的方式生活. 觉得他们的理想很实在。我们这些来自世界各地有心为环保做些事情的同学可以向汪剑超他们学习. 我们的环保strategy， 应该是精英和草根两条腿走路。

非常喜欢汪剑超, 觉得他虚怀若谷, 脚踏实地. “不要抱怨，每个人做应该做的事。就是所谓的知行合一，哪怕这个行，是很微小的行动。”“改变世界，可以不指向某个遥远虚幻的群体，我想看看自己，能伸手为身边人做点什么小事。”不抱怨， 不问国家和政府为我们做了什么， 而是看我们自己怎么能从我做起， 从身边做起, 每个人做一点点就是在改变世界。

我们应该邀请汪剑超入群, 讨论草根环保运动的发展壮大. 和80后90后联手，利用网络, 最大化地调动中国的每个公民改变环保意识，加入环保的行列. 鼓励公民监督和提出好的，环保改进建议。想办法鼓励对环保有成就的个体和企业.

另一篇有关台北垃圾处理的成功经验也很有启发. 用了MBA的5-WHY方法去寻元， 找到最有效的解决方案。
<牛逼的思维方式都是倒逼出来的>https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s?__biz=MzA3Nzg3MzUyMw==&mid=2456203532&idx=1&sn=c53bd76c6cccd9a40c67afa73dad4864&chksm=88d97910bfaef006922eb0dcce5cf77caef9c7add5f3af985f51eede2cea6dc9eef83e836666&mpshare=1&scene=1&srcid=1223qkR5XHvkng7oiyiEkZuB&pass_ticket=tV0MLExqHw5kstmGiLV21Z8qlTgMHY1v2GvfHE52JptVqd%2FvilqmGCRSfQwtTdnJ#rd

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The proper handling of primary batteries
一次电池（原电池）安全使用指南
FROM BAJ（日本电池工业协会） 翻译：李昆 校对：新军

1) Do not reverse the positive and negative terminals






A device that uses three or more batteries may operate even if one battery is inserted reversely. If the battery inserted reversely is recharged, however, it may become hot, leak, or explode.

1）不能颠倒电池的正负极
一个设备在使用三个或更多电池时，即使一个电池被反向插入，该设备也可能正常运行。但如果充电时电池被反向插入，电池就可能发热，泄漏，甚至爆炸。

2) Do not short circuit batteries






Do not carry or store batteries with necklaces, hairpins, coins, keys, or other metallic objects. Metallic objects can cause short circuits in the positive and negative terminals of batteries, resulting in the flow of large electrical currents that can cause heat generation, explosions or fire, or generate heat in the metallic objects.
Since battery terminals are metallic and the surfaces of button batteries and coin-type batteries are metal, be sure to insulate battery terminals when disposing of batteries, otherwise terminals may come into contact with the metallic surfaces of other batteries and cause short circuits.
The positive and negative terminals of square-type batteries in particular can be short-circuited if coin-type batteries are wedged in between them. This can result in recharging or over-discharging, and cause the batteries to explode or catch fire.

2）不要让电池短路
携带或存放电池时，不要和项链、发卡、硬币、钥匙或其它金属物体放在一起。金属物体能在电池的正负极造成短路，从而产生大的电流流动，引起发热、爆炸或起火，或者使金属物体发热。
由于电池电极、纽扣电池表面和扣式电池表面都是金属的，请在处理这些旧电池时予以隔离，否则电池电极可能会与其它电池的金属表面相接触，造成短路。
如果扣形电池在方型电池的正负极中楔入，会造成短路。这可能导致充电或过放电，并引起电池爆炸或着火。

3) Do not recharge dry or lithium primary batteries






Dry and lithium primary batteries cannot be recharged.
They are not designed to be recharged, and doing so may result in accidents (heat generation or explosions).

3）切勿对干电池或锂原电池充电
干电池和锂原电池都是不能充电的。
他们是按照不可充电设计的，因此充电可能造成事故（发热或爆炸）

4) Do not use different types or used and new or different brands of batteries together






The use of a mixture of different types or brands of battery, or of used and new batteries even of the same brand or type, may result in heat generation, leakage, explosion, or fire. When replacing the batteries, use new batteries of the same types and brands.

4）不同类型的电池、新旧电池、不同品牌的电池不能混用
混用不同型号或品牌的电池，或者即使品牌和类型一致的新旧电池，可能会导致发热，漏液，爆炸或起火。更换电池时，建议使用同型号和同品牌的新电池。

5) When batteries run down, remove them as soon as possible






Remove the batteries as soon as they become run down. Otherwise, the batteries may leak and damage the device.

5）当电池电量耗尽时，尽快将其取出
当电池电量耗尽时，尽快将其取出。否则，电池可能会漏液和损坏设备。

6) Do not expose batteries to heat or fire






Do not expose batteries to fire. This is dangerous and can result in explosions or fire. Heating batteries may cause them to leak or explode.

6）不要将电池置于高温或火中
不要将电池扔到火里。这样做很危险，可能会导致爆炸或火灾。加热电池可能会导致漏液或爆炸。

7) Do not apply solder directly to batteries






Do not apply solder directly to the terminals of a battery. Soldering batteries is dangerous, because the heat will melt the insulator, creating an internal short-circuit, and leading to heat generation, explosion, and fire.

7）不要直接对电池进行焊接
不直对电池的两极直接进行焊接。焊接电池是危险的，因为热会熔化电池内的绝缘体，造成内部短路，并导致电池发热，爆炸和火灾。

8) Do not disassemble or modify batteries






Disassembling a battery is dangerous and may result in explosion or fire, and the content may cause chemical burns.

8）不要拆卸或改装电池
拆卸电池很危险，可能会导致爆炸或火灾，电池内的材料可能会造成化学灼伤。

9) Do not deform a battery






Squashing, drilling, or cutting a battery is dangerous as it may result in leaking or exploding.

9）不要毁坏电池
挤压，钻孔，或切割电池都是很危险的，可能会导致电池泄漏或爆炸。

10) Keep batteries out of reach of children






Keep batteries out of reach of children. In the event that a battery is swallowed, immediately consult a doctor. In addition, do not allow children to remove batteries from devices and do not allow animals to play with batteries.

10）把电池放在小孩够不着的地方
把电池放在小孩够不着的地方。小孩不慎吞下电池，应立即就医。此外，不要让小孩从设备中取出电池，不要让动物玩耍电池。

11) Remove the batteries from devices that will not be used for a long time






Even when the device is turned off, the power in the battery is slowly draining. This may result in leakage, so please remove the batteries when the device will not be used for a long time (excluding emergency devices).
Place these batteries separately in a case or otherwise place them so as to avoid short-circuiting.

11）长期不用时，应将电池从设备中取出
即使设备被关闭，电池中的电力仍在慢慢释放，这可能导致漏液。因此，当设备（不含紧急设备）长期不用时，请取出电池。
将取出的电池单独放置，以避免发生短路。

12) Flush with water to remove battery electrolyte from skin or clothing






If the battery leaks and its electrolyte comes into contact with skin or clothes, wash the contact area with clean water. If battery electrolyte gets into the eye, flush immediately with clean water and consult a doctor immediately.

12）皮肤或衣物不慎接触电池电解液，需用大量清水冲洗
如果电池漏液，漏出的电解液接触到皮肤或衣物，请用清水冲洗接触面。如果电池的电解液不慎进入眼睛里，需立即用清水冲洗，并立即就医。

13) Turn off battery-powered devices when not in use





The cause of leakage in many cases is the failure to turn off the device. So please turn off devices when they are no longer in use.

13）电池供电的设备不使用时需关闭电源开关
在许多情况下，漏液的原因是设备的电源开关没有关闭。所以，请在它们不再使用时关闭设备。

14)Regularly check the condition of batteries used in devices without a power on/off switch (such as clocks, wireless mice and remote controllers)






A device without a power on/off switch constantly consumes and weakens battery power. This may result in the unstable behavior of the device. In such cases, the battery needs to be replaced as soon as possible.

14）定期检查没有电源通/断开关的设备中的电池使用情况（如时钟，无线鼠标和遥控器）
没有电源通/断开关的设备在不断消耗和削弱电池电量，这可能会导致该设备运行状态不稳定。在这种情况下，电池需要尽快更换。

15) Do not store batteries in a location subject to high humidity and temperatures where they are exposed to direct sunlight.






The ideal environment for people is also the ideal environment for storing batteries. High humidity may cause condensation on batteries, resulting in short-circuiting. Leaving a battery in a location subject to high temperatures for a long time will reduce the battery performance.

15）不要将电池存放在高湿度的场所及阳光暴晒高温的地方
人们生活的理想环境，也是存放电池的理想环境。高湿度可能会导致电池缩合，引起短路。将电池长期存放在高温场所，会降低电池的性能。

16) Do not get batteries wet






Getting a battery wet with water, salt water, juice or other liquids can result in short-circuiting and rust.

16）不要让电池受潮
用水，盐水，果汁或其他液体将电池淋湿，可能会导致电池短路和生锈。

17) Do not remove the battery label






Do not remove or damage the battery label.
Removing or damaging the label makes the battery easier to short-circuit, and may result in leakage, overheating or explosion.

17）不要移除电池标签
请不要移除或损坏电池标签。
移除或损坏电池标签会使电池更容易短路，并可能导致漏液，过热或爆炸。

18) Use batteries within the recommended period






Batteries used within the recommended period will deliver the performance prescribed by JIS. Purchasing spare batteries for later use is acceptable if they are used within the recommended period.

18）在建议的期限内使用电池
在推荐的期限内使用电池能得到由JIS规定的相关电池性能。只要在推荐的期限内使用，购买备用电池以后使用是没有问题的。

19) Beware of fake and modified batteries






Batteries with no manufacturer or distributor names displayed or with no warning labels may be fake or modified batteries. Fake and modified batteries may have damaged or no safety mechanisms that prevent accidents. This is dangerous and may result in explosion or fire. Be careful not to purchase these batteries.

19）谨防假冒和改装的电池
没有显示任何制造商或分销商的名称或没有警告标签的电池可能是假冒或改装电池。假冒或改装的电池可能已损坏，或没有安全装置去防止事故的发生。使用这种电池是危险的，可能会导致爆炸或火灾。购买电池时我们要小心，不要购买假冒或改装电池。

20) Inserting/removing battery into/from a device
Insert/remove a battery into/from a device according to the instructions in the device’s user’s manual and never use excessive force. After inserting the battery, check the behavior of the device, and in case of unstable behavior remove the battery and inspect the device.

20）从设备中插入或取出电池
根据设备用户手册中的说明从设备中插入或取出电池，不要过度使用力量。插入电池后，检查设备的运行状态。在设备运行状态不稳定的情况下，取下电池并检查设备。 查看全部

Stanford, SLAC Play Key Role in New DOE Battery Consortium
斯坦福和美国国家加速器实验室在新的DOE电池共同体里起着至关重要的作用

From：https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/news/2016-07-29-stanford-slac-play-key-role-new-doe-battery-consortium.aspx?from=singlemessage&isappinstalled=0
Translated by: 王思淼、洁宁、流言木雨、QishenH、Milkoo、Aijun、Cuihong、lekost

‘Battery500’ to Develop New Technology for Electric Vehicles, Potentially Tripling Their Range and Lowering Their Cost
July 29, 2016
“电池500共同体”的目标是:推进电动汽车新技术,提升三倍于现有的续航里程，并降低电池成本。
2016年7月29日

A newly formed Battery500 consortium, including researchers from Stanford University and the Department of Energy’s SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, will receive up to $10 million each year for the next five years to develop a new battery technology that could make electric vehicles go two to three times farther and make them less expensive.
新成立的“电池500共同体”，其成员包括来自斯坦福大学和能源部美国国家加速器实验室的研究人员。 在未来的五年内，他们每年将获得高达一千万美元的资金，用于发展新的电池技术，期望在降低电池价格的同时令电动汽车的续航里程提升至两至到三倍。

Support for Battery500 is one of several federal and private sector actions announced on July 21 by the Obama administration that aim to boost the spread and affordability of electric vehicles in the U.S. It is part of a broader effort to fight climate change, make clean energy widely accessible and reduce dependence on oil.
奥巴马政府于7月21日宣布，对“电池500共同体”的资助是联邦和私营部门的活动之一，此活动旨在提高电动汽车在美国的普遍性和可购性。它是为抑制气候变化所做的一份努力，让清洁能源得到广泛使用，从而减少对石油的依赖。

Funded by the DOE’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, the consortium’s 11 partners – four national labs, five research universities and two companies – will be working on making smaller, lighter and cheaper batteries that can be seamlessly adopted by battery and car manufacturers.
该共同体由四个国家级实验室，五所研究大学和两家公司等11个合作者组成。在美国能源部能源效率和可再生能源办公室的资助下，他们将致力于研究更小巧，更轻质并且更加便宜的电池产品，并能和电池以及汽车制造商进行无缝对接。

“Our goal is to extract every available drop of energy from battery materials while also producing a high-performance battery that is reliable, safe and less expensive,” says consortium director Jun Liu from the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), which leads the collaborative effort.
“我们的目标就是使电池中储存的能量得到充分利用，生产出一款安全、可靠、高性能且价格经济的电池。” 此项合作的领军人、联盟负责人、就职于太平洋西北国家实验室的刘军如是说。

SLAC Director Chi-Chang Kao says, “By looking at more efficient ways of storing and using energy, Battery500 addresses important societal challenges. A growing number of Stanford and SLAC researchers are working on improving battery materials, and we’re delighted that they’ll be able to share their expertise as members of the initiative.”
SLAC的主任高其昌说，“通过寻找更有效的存储和利用能量的方法，“电池500共同体”有助于解决一些重大的社会挑战。在斯坦福大学和SLAC，越来越多的研究者正致力于改良电池材料，我们也很欣慰地看到他们即将作为“电池500共同体”的组织成员分享他们的专业知识。”

Taking Electric Transportation Further
让电动交通工具行驶更远

The consortium’s aggressive goal is to develop lithium batteries with two to three times the “specific energy” found in batteries that power today’s electric cars. Specific energy measures the amount of energy packed into a battery based on its weight. Because electric vehicles need to be lightweight to drive farther on a given charge, batteries with high specific energies are crucial.
产业联盟定下雄心勃勃的目标，定位于研发比现有电动车锂电池之储能密度（比能）高2至3倍的新型电池。比能的单位可写为：能量/质量。每次充电之后，重量轻的车可以开得更远，因此提高电池比能（即增加电池的储能，减轻电池的重量）极为重要。

“At the moment, electric cars use batteries with a specific energy of about 170 to 200 watt-hours per kilogram of battery cell, with the most advanced technology reaching 250 watt-hours per kilogram,” says Stanford’s Steven Chu, chairman of Battery500’s advisory board. “If we wanted to build compact electric cars with a small footprint that go about 300 miles per charge, then we couldn’t do it with the current battery technology.”
“目前，电动车使用的电池能力是大约每公斤170到200瓦特小时。用最先进的技术，能够达到每公斤250瓦特小时。”斯坦福大学教授、Battery500 咨询委员会主席朱棣文说，“如果我们想造充一次电跑大约300英里的小型电动汽车，目前的电池技术达不到。”

That’s why the consortium wants to develop batteries with 500 watt-hours per kilogram (hence the name Battery500), which would allow manufacturers to shrink the size of future electric vehicles. It would also make current models go two to three times as far.
这就是为什么联盟要发展每公斤500瓦特小时（因此得名Battery500 ），这将允许制造商缩小未来电动汽车的大小。它也能使当前的电动汽车同样模型能够跑两到三倍更远。

In addition, a larger specific energy would also reduce the price of batteries and make electric cars more affordable.
除此之外，更高的能量密度也可以降低电池的价格，令电动汽车更实惠。

“These are very ambitious goals that will require a lot of R&D work,” says Battery500’s Co-Director Yi Cui from the Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences (SIMES), a joint institute of SLAC and Stanford. “We need to identify new battery technology that is currently not used in lithium-ion batteries.”
“这是一个非常宏伟的目标，将需要大量的研发工作，”来自斯坦福大学与美国国家加速器实验室的联合实验室——斯坦福材料与能源科学研究所（SIMES）的电池500共同体的联席主席崔毅说道，“我们需要找出目前未在锂离子电池中使用的新电池技术。”

Innovation through Collaboration
通过协作进行创新

The researchers hope to reach their goals by pairing the battery’s negative electrode, which will be made of lithium, with a positive one made of other materials. Cui’s research group and others will design, synthesize and test out a number of materials, study their properties and problems, and find ways to improve them.
研究人员希望通过用锂制作的负极与其他材料制作的正极进行配对达成他们的目标。崔的科研组和其他人将设计，合成并测试一系列的材料。研究它们的性质和缺陷，并想办法加以改进。

In this process, Battery500 will take advantage of a number of facilities, including SLAC’s Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL). The DOE Office of Science User Facility generates intense X-rays that will be used to diagnose various battery materials on the nanoscale and under operating conditions.
在这个过程中，“电池500共同体”将利用包括SLAC的斯坦福同步辐射光源(SSRL-前斯坦福同步辐射实验室)在内的诸多设施。美国能源部科学办公室的设备可以产生高强度的X射线，可用于观察不同电池材料在纳米尺度下的表现以及运行状态。

A key focus of the consortium is to ensure that the technological solutions it develops meet the needs of car and battery manufacturers. While the project is ongoing, consortium members will work with industrial partners on the implementation of innovations.
联盟关注的一个重点，就是确保它的技术方案满足电动汽车及电池制造商的需要。在项目进行时，联盟成员会与工业界在技术创新的实施方面紧密合作。

Recognizing that diversity in experience and opinions often results in better solutions, the consortium will also set aside 20 percent of its annual budget to fund proposals from U.S. research groups outside the collaboration.
因为认识到经验和意见的多样性常常能带来更好的解决方案，产业联盟拿出20%的年度预算，用以资助联盟之外的美国研究小组的提案。

In addition to PNNL, Stanford and SLAC, Battery500 includes members from Brookhaven National Laboratory; Idaho National Laboratory; State University of New York, Binghamton; University of California, San Diego; University of Texas, Austin; University of Washington; and advisory board members from IBM and Tesla Motors, Inc.
除了西北太平洋国家实验室，斯坦福大学和斯坦福线性加速器中心，“电池500共同体”成员还包括布鲁克海文国家实验室、爱达荷国家实验室、纽约州立大学宾汉姆顿分校、加利福尼亚大学圣地牙哥分校、得克萨斯大学奥斯汀分校、华盛顿大学，和来自IBM与特斯拉汽车公司的顾问委员会成员。

Other Battery500 members from SLAC are the consortium’s operation deputy Mark Hartney and principal investigators Zhenan Bao and Michael Toney.
“电池500共同体”还包括来自于斯坦福线性加速器中心的运营副总马克·哈特尼和项目负责人鲍哲南、迈克尔·托尼。

Editor’s note: Parts of this news feature are based on a press release issued by PNNL.
For questions or comments, contact the SLAC Office of Communications at communications@slac.stanford.edu.

编者注：这篇新闻特稿的部分是基于西北太平洋国家实验室发布的新闻稿。
如有问题或意见，请联络SLAC公关部：communications@slac.stanford.edu.

SLAC is a multi-program laboratory exploring frontier questions in photon science, astrophysics, particle physics and accelerator research. Located in Menlo Park, Calif., SLAC is operated by Stanford University for the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science.
斯坦福线性加速器中心是在天体物理、光子科学、加速器和粒子物理研究等多学科前沿领域研究的综合实验室。它位于加州门洛帕克，由斯坦福大学管理，隶属于美国能源部的科学办公室。

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory is supported by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy. The Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit science.energy.gov.
美国能源部科学办公室资助了斯坦福线性加速器中心国家加速器实验室项目，它是美国物理科学基础研究的最大支持者，并正在努力攻克当代最紧迫的一些挑战。欲知详情，请访问：science.energy.gov。


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王一航，Rela，Janice，北月走己，崔红，洪建辉，刘亚琴，蠡貹櫜，瞿陈姐

Solar water disinfection ('SoDis') is a type of portable water purification that uses solar energy to make biologically-contaminated (e.g. bacteria, viruses, protozoa and worms) water safe to drink. Water contaminated with non-biological agents such as toxic chemicals or heavy metals require additional steps to make the water safe to drink.

太阳能杀菌净化水是一项利用太阳能使被生物（例如细菌性病毒、原生动物以及虫类）污染的水转化为安全饮用水的便利的净化水的方法！被化学毒品与重金属等非生物化学剂污染的水则需要额外的步骤进行净化才能变为安全饮用水。


Solar water disinfection is usually accomplished using some mix of electricity generated by photovoltaic panels (solar PV), heat (solar thermal), and solar ultraviolet light collection.

太阳能水消毒通常是利用光电板（太阳能光伏）发电，热（光热），和太阳紫外线光综合作用完成。

Solar disinfection using the effects of electricity generated by photovoltaics typically uses an electric current to deliver electrolytic processes which disinfect water, for example by generating oxidative free radicals which kill pathogens by damaging their chemical structure. A second approach uses stored solar electricity from a battery, and operates at night or at low light levels to power an ultraviolet lamp to perform secondary solar ultraviolet water disinfection.

利用太阳能进行光伏发电消毒通常使用电流消毒，例如，通过产生氧化的自由基破坏病原体化学结构来杀死病原体。第二种方法使用从电池储存的太阳能发电，在夜间或光线较暗的情况下，用紫外线灯进行二次太阳紫外线水消毒。

Solar thermal water disinfection uses heat from the Sun to heat water to 70–100 °C for a short period of time. A number of approaches exist here. Solar heat collectors can have lenses in front of them, or use reflectors. They may also use varying levels of insulation or glazing. In addition, some solar thermal water disinfection processes are batch-based, while others (through-flow solar thermal disinfection) operate almost continuously while the Sun shines. Water heated to temperatures below 100 °C is generally referred to as Pasteurized water.

太阳能热消毒使用太阳的热量把水加热到70〜100℃并维持小段时间。有很多种方法实现。太阳能集热器可以用透镜，或使用反射镜。它们也可以使用绝缘或吸热层。此外，一些太阳能热利用水的消毒过程是批量为主，而其它方式在有太阳光的时候（穿流式太阳能热消毒）几乎持续作业不断。加热至温度低于100℃的水通常被称为巴氏杀菌水。
The ultraviolet part of sunlight can also kill pathogens in water. The SODIS method uses a combination of UV light and increased temperature (solar thermal) fordisinfecting water using only sunlight and PET plastic bottles. SODIS is a free and effective method for decentralized water treatment, usually applied at the household level and is recommended by the World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage.[1] SODIS is already applied in numerous developing countries.[2]:55 Educational pamphlets on the method are available in many languages,[3] each equivalent to the English-language version.[2]

太阳光中的紫外线也可以杀灭水中的病原体。所述SODIS方法是使用太阳光加热使水升温同时紫外线照射的综合作用，对PET塑料瓶中的水进行消毒。 SODIS是分散式污水处理，一般在家庭层面应用是一个自由和有效的方法，也是世界卫生组织推荐为家庭水处理和安全储存的可行方法。[1] SODIS在许多发展中国家已经应用[2]：教育用的小册子已经翻译成多种语言进行发行，[3]内容等同于英语语言版本[2]。

Contents [hide] 1Principle of SODIS
2Process for household application
3Applications
4Cautions
5Health impact, diarrhea reduction
6Research
7Promotion
8See also
9References
10External links

Principle of SODIS[edit]

SODIS原理

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)

本节不引用任何资源。请帮助改善这一节加入引用可靠消息。无法查证的内容可能被提出异议而移除。 （2016年3月）（了解如何以及何时删除此模板消息）

Exposure to sunlight has been shown to deactivate diarrhea-causing organisms in polluted drinking water. The inactivation of pathogenic organisms is attributed to: the UV-A (wavelength 320–400 nm) part of the sunlight, which reacts with oxygen dissolved in the water and produces highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) that damage pathogens, while it also interferes with metabolism and destroys bacterial cell structures; and simultaneously the full band of solar energy (from infrared to UV) heats the water.

阳光下曝晒可以使被污染水中的致腹泻的病原微生物（细菌或者病毒）失去活性。病原微生物的失活归因于：太阳光中的紫外线A段UV-A（波长320-400毫微米）与溶解在水中的氧发生反应，产生高活性氧化物（游离氧自由基和过氧化氢），损坏病原体，同时它还妨碍代谢并破坏细菌细胞结构;同时太阳能（从红外线到紫外线）的全波段可以把水加热。

At a water temperature of about 30 °C (86 °F), a threshold solar irradiance of at least 500 W/m2 (all spectral light) is required for about 5 hours for SODIS to be efficient. This dose contains energy of 555 Wh/m2 in the range of UV-A and violet light, 350–450 nm, corresponding to about 6 hours of mid-latitude (European) midday summer sunshine.


在约30℃（86°F）的水温下，在至少500瓦 /平方米的太阳辐射（全光谱光）强度下，SODIS需要约5小时才能够有效地消毒。这个剂量相当于紫外线UV-A和紫光（波长350-450纳米范围内）的555瓦时/平方米的能量，相当于约6小时中纬度地区（欧洲）夏日正午的阳光的照射。

At water temperatures higher than 45 °C (113 °F), synergistic effects of UV radiation and temperature further enhance the disinfection efficiency. Above 50 °C (122 °F), the bacterial count drops three times faster.

在水温超过45°C（113°F）时，紫外线辐射和温度的协同效应进一步增强杀菌效率。高于50°C（122°F），细菌计数下降加快三倍。

Process for household application[edit]
SODIS instructions for using solar water disinfection Guides for the household use of SODIS describe the process.

家庭应用的处理过程[编辑]
使用太阳能热水消毒指南为家庭使用SODIS的描述过程说明。

Colourless, transparent PET water or pop bottles of 2 litre or smaller size with few surface scratches are selected for use. Glass bottles are unsuitable, as they block UV-A.[citation needed] Any labels are removed and the bottles are washed before the first use. Water from possibly-contaminated sources is filled into the bottles, using the clearest water possible. Where theturbidity is higher than 30 NTU it is necessary to filter or precipitate out particulates prior to exposure to the sunlight. Filters are locally made from cloth stretched over inverted bottles with the bottoms cut off. In order to improve oxygen saturation, the guides recommend that bottles be filled three-quarters, shaken for 20 seconds (with the cap on), then filled completely, recapped, and checked for clarity.

2升或小于2升的无色透明表面没有或者很少划痕的PET水或饮料瓶适用于本过程。玻璃瓶不适合的，因为它们阻挡紫外线UV-A。[来源请求]任何标签都要被取下，瓶子在首次使用前清洗。从可能的污染来源的水灌到瓶中，尽可能用清水。其中，浊度高于30 NTU的水在曝晒前需要过滤或沉淀。就地取材制作过滤器，可以把瓶子倒过来，将底切掉，用布绷紧罩在上面。为了提高氧饱和度，建议瓶先灌四分之三，振荡20秒（盖上盖子），然后完全灌满，盖上盖，并检查清澈程度。


Aluminum reflects ultraviolet wellThe filled bottles are then exposed to the fullest sunlight possible. Bottles will heat faster and hotter if they are placed on a sloped Sun-facing reflective metal surface. A corrugated metal roof (as compared to thatched roof) or a slightly curved sheet of aluminum foil increases the light inside the bottle. Overhanging structures or plants that shade the bottles must be avoided, as they reduce both illumination and heating. After sufficient time, the treated water can be consumed directly from the bottle or poured into clean drinking cups. The risk of re-contamination is minimized if the water is stored in the bottles. Refilling and storage in other containers increases the risk of contamination.


铝能很好地反射紫外线。灌了水的瓶子应该尽量放在全阳光下。如果把瓶子放在倾斜的向着太阳的反射金属表面，会加热更快。加一个波纹的金属顶或者稍弯的铝箔片将增加照到瓶子里的阳光。
处理中的水瓶必须避免遮阳的结构或植物，因为遮阳减少了照明和加热。
足够长的时间之后，处理过的水就可以直接饮用或是倒到其它干净杯中饮用。
如果水保存在原瓶中，二次污染的的风险小。把水灌入其它容器保存，增加了被污染的风险。

Suggested treatment schedule[4]
Weather conditions Minimum treatment duration
Sunny (less than 50% cloud cover) 6 hours
Cloudy (50–100% cloudy, little to no rain) 2 days
Continuous rainfall Unsatisfactory performance;
use rainwater harvesting

建议处理方案[4]
天气情况：最少处理时间
晴天（低于50％的云盖）6小时
阴天（50-100％阴天，几乎没有雨）2天
连续降雨表现欠佳;
雨水收集


The most favorable regions for application of the SODIS method are located between latitude 15°N and 35°N, and also 15°S and 35°S.[2] These regions have high levels of solar radiation, with limited cloud cover and rainfall, and with over 90% of sunlight reaching the earth's surface as direct radiation.[2] The second most favorable region lies between latitudes 15°N and 15°S. these regions have high levels of scattered radiation, with about 2500 hours of sunshine annually, due to high humidity and frequent cloud cover.[2]



用于SODIS方法最有利的区域位于北纬35°N和15°N之间以及南纬35°S和15°S度之间。[2]这些区域太阳辐射高，云层少，降雨少，阳光到达地球表面直接辐射达90％以上。[2]第二个最有利的地区位于北纬15°N和南纬15°S之间。这些地区散射辐射高，具有每年约2500小时的日照，不过空气湿度大，并经常云层密布。[2]


Local education in the use of SODIS is important to avoid confusion between PET and other bottle materials. Applying SODIS without proper assessment (or with false assessment) of existing hygienic practices & diarrhea incidence may not address other routes of infection. Community trainers must themselves be trained first.[2]

为避免在PET瓶子和其它瓶子的选择上发生混淆，使用SODIS上的教育是很重要。 如果没有正确评估现行的卫生实践和腹泻的案例，随意使用太阳能灭菌法，并不能有效防止其他感梁途径。社区培训师本身必须先接受培训。[2]

Applications[edit]


应用



SODIS is an effective method for treating water where fuel or cookers are unavailable or prohibitively expensive. Even where fuel is available, SODIS is a more economical and environmentally friendly option. The application of SODIS is limited if enough bottles are not available, or if the water is highly turbid. In fact, if the water is highly turbid, SODIS cannot be used alone; additional filtering is then necessary.[5]


当没有燃料或者灶的时候，或者这两者异常昂贵的时候，太阳能净水法时一种有效而净水方法。即使有燃料可以使用，太阳能净化法依然是更节约更环保的方式。 如果没有足够多的瓶子或者水高度浑浊，太阳能净水的应用就会受到限制。事实上，如果水高度浑浊，太阳能净水法不能单独使用，需要进行额外的过滤。【5】


A basic field test to determine if the water is too turbid for the SODIS method to work properly is the newspaper test.[3] For the newspaper test place the filled bottle upright on top of a newspaper headline. Look down through the bottle opening. If the letters of the headline are readable, the water can be used for the SODIS method. If the letters are not readable then the turbidity of the water likely exceeds 30 NTU, and the water must be pretreated.

确定水是否浊度太高，能否使用的SODIS法净化的一个方式是“报纸测试法”。所谓报纸测试法，就是把灌满水的瓶子竖直放在报纸的标题上。通过瓶口，如果可以看清楚报纸的标题，就可使用SODIS方法。如果字母看不清楚，则水的混浊度可能超过30个浊度单位（NTU），水必须进行预处理。

In theory, the method could be used in disaster relief or refugee camps. However, supplying bottles may be more difficult than providing equivalent disinfecting tablets containing chlorine, bromine, or iodine. In addition, in some circumstances, it may be difficult to guarantee that the water will be left in the sun for the necessary time.


从理论上讲，该方法可以运用在救灾或难民营中。然而，供给足够的瓶子可能比提供含有氯，溴，或碘的消毒片更加困难。此外，在某些情况下，很难保证水在阳光下暴晒足够长的时间。

Other methods for household water treatment and safe storage exist (e.g., chlorination) different filtration procedures or flocculation/disinfection. The selection of the adequate method should be based on the criteria of effectiveness, the co-occurrence of other types of pollution (turbidity, chemical pollutants), treatment costs, labor input and convenience, and the user’s preference.

还有一些其他家庭用的水处理和安全存储水的方法（例如氯化），使用不同的过滤程序或者絮凝/消毒等方式。选择适当的方法应基于如下标准:有效，有无其它类型污染（浑浊，化学污染物），处理成本，劳动力和方便性，以及用户偏好等。

When the water is highly turbid, SODIS cannot be used alone; additional filtering or flocculation is then necessary to clarify the water prior to SODIS treatment.[6][7] Recent work has shown that common table salt (NaCl) is an effective flocculation agent for decreasing turbidity for the SODIS method in some types of soil.[8] This method could be used to increase the geographic areas for which the SODIS method could be used as regions with highly turbid water could be treated for low costs.[9]

当水高度浑浊时，太阳能净水法不能单独使用。在使用太阳能净水法前，必须进行额外的过滤或絮凝。【6】【7】有资料显示，普通食盐（氯化钠）可以做为降低某一类泥土浊度的有效絮凝剂【8】。这个方法可以低成本地降低此类浑浊度高的水，扩大太阳能能净水法使用的地理范围。


SODIS may alternatively be implemented using plastic bags. SODIS bags have been found to yield as much as 74% higher treatment efficiencies than SODIS bottles, which may be because the bags are able to reach elevated temperatures that cause accelerated treatment.[10] SODIS bags with a water layer of approximately 1 cm to 6 cm reach higher temperatures more easily than SODIS bottles, and treat Vibrio cholerae more effectively.[10] It is assumed this is because of the improved surface area to volume ratio in SODIS bags. In remote regions plastic bottles are not locally available and need to be shipped in from urban centers which may be expensive and inefficient since bottles cannot be packed very tightly. Bags can be packed more densely than bottles, and can be shipped at lower cost, representing an economically preferable alternative to SODIS bottles in remote communities. The disadvantages of using bags are that they can give the water a plastic smell, they are more difficult to handle when filled with water, and they typically require that the water be transferred to a second container for drinking.

太阳能净水法用塑料袋来代替瓶子。 研究发现，SODIS塑料袋的效率可比比SODIS瓶高出74％，这可能是因为塑料袋能迅速升温导致处理速度加快。【10】 包含1厘米到6厘米厚的水层的SODIS塑料袋，比SODIS瓶更容易达到更高的温度，并且更有效地杀灭霍乱弧菌。【10】这被认为是由于SODIS袋表面积与体积比更高导致的。在偏远地区可能本地没有塑料瓶，需要从城市运输过去，由于瓶子不能够压紧密实地运输，运费可能会非常昂贵。而袋子可以比瓶子的更压紧，能以较低的成本运输，在偏远地区比运输瓶子更经济更可取。使用袋的缺点是，它们会给水带来一种塑料气味，灌满水时更难处理，通常需要把水转移到其它容器才能能饮用。


Another important benefit in using the SODIS bottles as opposed to the bags or other methods requiring the water to be transferred to a smaller container for consumption is that the bottles are a point-of-use household water treatment method.[11] Point-of-use means that the water is treated in the same easy to handle container it will be served from, thus decreasing the risk of secondary water contamination.
相对于袋子或其它需要把水转移到更小的容器才能使用的方法，瓶子的另一个重要的好处是点式使用。【11】点式使用意味着水同一容器中处理和使用，从而降低二次污染的风险。


Cautions[edit]
注意事项

The PET recycling mark shows that a bottle is made from polyethylene terephthalate, making it suitable for solar water disinfection[12]If the water bottles are not left in the Sun for the proper length of time, the water may not be safe to drink and could cause illness. If the sunlight is less strong, due to overcast weather or a less sunny climate, a longer exposure time in the Sun is necessary.

PET回收标记表明瓶子是由聚对苯二甲酸乙酯制成的，这种瓶子适合做用太阳能来对水进行消毒[12]。如果水瓶在阳光下的照射时间不够长，水不但不能安全饮用，还可能导致疾病。在阴天或晴天较少的天气，如果阳光没有那么强，更长的照射时间是必要的。

The following issues should also be considered:
以下问题也应考虑：


Bottle material
制瓶材料

Some glass or PVC materials may prevent ultraviolet light from reaching the water.[13] Commercially available bottles made of PET are recommended. The handling is much more convenient in the case of PET bottles. Polycarbonate (resin identification code 7) blocks all UVA and UVB rays, and therefore should not be used. Bottles that are clear are to be preferred over bottles that have been colored. For example: the green of some lemon/lime soda pop bottles.

某些玻璃或PVC材料的瓶子会阻挡紫外线到达水中。[13]推荐使用市面上销售的PET瓶。SoDis法用PET瓶非常方便。聚碳酸酯（树脂识别码7）会屏蔽掉所有的紫外线UVA和UVB，因而不能使用。无色透明的瓶子要优于彩色瓶。例如：一些绿色的柠檬/酸橙汽水瓶子。


Aging of plastic bottles
塑料瓶的老化

SODIS efficiency depends on the physical condition of the plastic bottles, with scratches and other signs of wear reducing the efficiency of SODIS. Heavily scratched or old, blind bottles should be replaced.


SODIS效率取决于塑料瓶的物理状况，有划痕和磨损迹象影响SODIS法的效率。严重划伤或陈旧以及深色的瓶子需要更换掉。

Shape of containers

容器形状
The intensity of the UV radiation decreases rapidly with increasing water depth. At a water depth of 10 cm (4 inches) and moderate turbidity of 26 NTU, UV-A radiation is reduced to 50%. PET soft drink bottles are often easily available and thus most practical for the SODIS application.


UV辐射的强度随着水的深度的增加会很快下降。在水深10厘米（4英寸）和浊度为26 NTU的情况下，UV-A辐射减少到50％。PET饮料瓶很容易得到，因此最适合SODIS方法采用。


Oxygen
氧气

Sunlight produces highly reactive forms of oxygen (oxygen free radicals and hydrogen peroxides) in the water. These reactive molecules contribute in the destruction process of the microorganisms. Under normal conditions (rivers, creeks, wells, ponds, tap) water contains sufficient oxygen (more than 3 mg/L of oxygen) and does not have to be aerated before the application of SODIS.

阳光在水中产生高活性的氧气（氧自由基和氢过氧化物）。这些活性分子在杀灭微生物的过程中起作用。在正常情况下（河流，小溪，井，池塘，自来水）中含有足够的氧气（超过3毫克/升的氧气）因此不需要在SODIS的处理方法之前进行补充。

Leaching of bottle material
制瓶材料的渗出

There has been some concern over the question of whether plastic drinking containers can release chemicals or toxic components into water, a process possibly accelerated by heat. The Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research have examined the diffusion of adipates and phthalates (DEHA andDEHP) from new and reused PET-bottles in the water during solar exposure. The levels of concentrations found in the water after a solar exposure of 17 hours in 60 °C (140 °F) water were far below WHO guidelines for drinking water and in the same magnitude as the concentrations of phthalate and adipate generally found in high-quality tap water. Concerns about the general use of PET-bottles were also expressed after a report published by researchers from the University of Heidelberg on the release of antimony from PET-bottles for soft drinks and mineral water stored over several months in supermarkets. However, the antimony concentrations found in the bottles are orders of magnitude below WHO[14] and national guidelines for antimony concentrations in drinking water.[15][16][17]Furthermore, SODIS water is not stored over such extended periods in the bottles.

已经有对塑料饮料容器是否释放化学物质或有毒成分到水中的担忧，这个过程可能因热而加速。瑞士联邦材料测试与研究实验室对再生或新PET瓶装水中己二酸酯和邻苯二甲酸酯（DEHA和DEHP）阳光下的照射下 扩散的情况进行了实验。60℃（140°F）的水在经过17个小时阳光的照射，水中邻苯二甲酸酯和己二酸酯的浓度水平远低于世界卫生组织饮用水规定中的优质自来水中的邻苯二甲酸酯和己二酸酯含量水平。海德堡大学研究人员发表的一份关于超市中存放几个月的PET瓶装软饮料和矿泉水中，锑的释放报告发表后，引起了社会对于PET瓶广泛使用的担忧。然而，在瓶装水中发现的锑浓度远远低于世界卫生组织和国家标准规定的饮用水锑浓度。此外，SODIS水并不会在瓶中长期保存。



Regrowth of bacteria
细菌的再生

Once removed from sunlight, remaining bacteria may again reproduce in the dark. A 2010 study showed that adding just 10 parts per million of hydrogen peroxide is effective in preventing the regrowth of wild Salmonella.[18]

一旦离开阳光照射，水中残存的细菌可能会在黑暗中重新繁殖。 2010年的一项研究表明，添加10万分之一的过氧化氢即可有效预防野生沙门氏菌的生长。

Toxic chemicals
有毒化学品
Solar water disinfection does not remove toxic chemicals that may be present in the water, such as factory waste.

太阳能水消毒并不会清除水中的有毒化学物质，如工厂废水等。

Health impact, diarrhea reduction[edit]

Only forty-six percent of people in Africa have safe drinking waterAccording to the World Health Organization, more than two million people per year die of preventable water-borne diseases, and one billion people lack access to a source of improved drinking water.[19][20]

It has been shown that the SODIS method (and other methods of household water treatment) can very effectively remove pathogenic contamination from the water. However, infectious diseases are also transmitted through other pathways, i.e. due to a general lack of sanitation and hygiene. Studies on the reduction of diarrhea among SODIS users show reduction values of 30–80%.[21][22][23][24]

对健康的影响，减少腹泻

只有46％的非洲人口有可安全饮用的水。

根据世界卫生组织的报告，每年有超过两百万的人死于由水传播的可预防疾病，有十亿人无法获得改善的饮用水源。

SODIS与其它家用水处理方法可以非常有效地从水中清除致病污染。但是，传染病也通过其它途径传播，比如缺乏卫生设施和习惯的地点。在SODIS用户中的研究显示，腹泻情况减少了30-80%。



Research[edit]
研究
The effectiveness of the SODIS was first discovered by Aftim Acra, of the American University of Beirut in the early 1980s. Follow-up was conducted by the research groups of Martin Wegelin at the Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG) and Kevin McGuigan at the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland. Clinical control trials were pioneered by Ronan Conroy of the RCSI team in collaboration with Michael Elmore-Meegan.ICROSS

SODIS的有效性首先是由来自美国贝鲁特大学的Aftim Acra，于20世纪80年代初发现的。瑞士联邦水科学与技术研究所(EAWAG)的Martin Wegelin和爱尔兰皇家外科医学院的Kevin McGuigan的研究小组进行了后续的研究。临床对照试验是由RCSI组的罗南·康罗伊与来自ICROSS的迈克尔·埃尔莫尔-米根合作首创。


A joint research project on SODIS was implemented by the following institutions:
关于SODIS的联合研究项目是由下列机构实施︰

Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland (RCSI), Ireland (coordination)
University of Ulster (UU), United Kingdom
CSIR Environmentek, South Africa, EAWAG, Switzerland
The Institute of Water and Sanitation Development (IWSD), Zimbabwe
Plataforma Solar de Almería (CIEMAT-PSA), Spain
University of Leicester (UL), United Kingdom
The International Commission for the Relief of Suffering and Starvation (ICROSS), Kenya
University of Santiago de Compostela (USC), Spain
Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Switzerland

爱尔兰皇家外科医学院 (RCSI), 爱尔兰 (协同)
阿尔斯特大学（UU），英国
科学与工业研究委员会 Environmentek，南非，瑞士联邦水质科学技术研究所，瑞士
水与卫生发展研究所（IWSD），津巴布韦
平台太阳能阿尔梅尔í一（ciemat-psa），西班牙
莱斯特大学（UL），英国
痛苦和饥饿救济国际委员会（ICROSS），肯尼亚
圣地亚哥-德孔波斯特拉大学（USC），西班牙
瑞士联邦水科学和技术研究所（EAWAG），瑞士

The project embarked on a multi-country study including study areas in Zimbabwe, South Africa and Kenya.

这个项目始于一个针对多个国家和地区的研究，研究对象包括津巴布韦、南非、肯尼亚等。

Other developments include the development of a continuous flow disinfection unit[25] and solar disinfection with titanium dioxide film over glass cylinders, which prevents the bacterial regrowth of coliforms after SODIS.[26]

其他进展包括连续流动消毒单元设备的研发[25]和用二氧化钛薄膜覆盖玻璃缸上进行太阳能消毒, 在此基础上使用SODIS后可防止大肠菌群细菌再生。[26]

Research has shown that a number of low-cost additives are capable of accelerating SODIS and that additives might make SODIS more rapid and effective in both sunny and cloudy weather, developments that could help make the technology more effective and acceptable to users.[27] A 2008 study showed that powdered seeds of five natural legumes (peas, beans and lentils)—Vigna unguiculata (cowpea), Phaseolus mungo (black lentil), Glycine max (soybean), Pisum sativum (green pea), and Arachis hypogaea (peanut)—when evaluated as natural flocculants for the removal of turbidity, were as effective as commercial alum and even superior for clarification in that the optimum dosage was low (1 g/L), flocculation was rapid (7–25 minutes, depending on the seed used) and the water hardness and pH was essentially unaltered.[28] Later studies have used chestnuts, oak acorns, and Moringa oleifera (drumstick tree) for the same purpose.[29][30]

研究表明，一些低成本的添加剂能够加速SODIS的过程，可能使SODIS在晴天和阴天的情况下都可以更迅速、有效的进行。这种技术发展可能会帮助使该技术更有效更容易为用户所接受。[27]2008年的研究表明，五种自然豆类的粉末状种子（豌豆、 豆和小扁豆）— 豇豆（豇豆），绿豆（黑扁豆），黄豆（大豆），豌豆（绿色豌豆）和花生（花生）—当作为去除浊度的天然絮凝剂时，与商业明矾一样有效，甚至在澄清上的最佳用量更低 (1g/L)。絮凝法速度很快（7-25分钟，具体取决于用的种子）而且水的硬度和 ph值基本不变.[28]
后来的研究使用栗子，橡子和辣木（鼓槌树）用于同样的目的。[29][30]

Other research has examined the use of doped semiconductors to increase the production of oxygen radicals under solar UV-A.[31] Recently, researchers at theNational Centre for Sensor Research and the Biomedical Diagnostics Institute at Dublin City University have developed an inexpensive printable UV dosimeter for SODIS applications that can be read using a mobile phone.[32] The camera of the phone is used to acquire an image of the sensor and custom software running on the phone analyses the sensor colour to provide a quantitative measurement of UV dose.

其他研究已经研究使用掺杂半导体来增加在太阳紫外线下的氧自由基的产量。[31]最近，研究人员在国家传感器研究中心和爱尔兰都柏林城市大学生物医学诊断研究所开发出可以通过手机阅读的SODIS应用的一种廉价的可打印紫外线剂量仪。[32] 手机的相机用于获取传感器的图像和运行在电话上的自定义软件分析传感器颜色来提供紫外线剂量的定量测定。

In isolated regions the effect of wood smoke increases lung disease, due to the constant need for building fires to boil water and cook. Research groups have found that boiling of water is neglected due to the difficulty of gathering wood, which is scarce in many areas. When presented with basic household water treatment options residents in isolated regions in Africa have shown a preference for the SODIS method over boiling or other basic water treatment methods.
在偏远地区，由于使用木柴烧火做饭，木柴造成的烟使肺病患病率增加。研究小组发现，由于在很多地区木材稀缺导致收集木材的困难，水甚至没有办法保证沸腾。非洲偏远地区的居民当面对基本家用水处理选项时显示出在SODIS法的偏爱超过沸腾杀菌方法或其他基本的水处理方法。

Promotion[edit]

The Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG), through the Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries (Sandec), coordinates SODIS promotion projects in 33 countries including Bhutan, Bolivia, Burkina Faso, Cambodia, Cameroon, DR Congo, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guatemala, Guinea, Honduras, India, Indonesia, Kenya, Laos, Malawi, Mozambique, Nepal, Nicaragua, Pakistan, Perú, Philippines, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sri Lanka, Togo, Uganda, Uzbekistan, Vietnam, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.[33]

瑞士联邦理工学院水产科学和技术（EAWAG），通过水和卫生部门在发展中国家（sandec）推广该项目. 包括不丹，玻利维亚，布基纳法索，柬埔寨，喀麦隆，厄瓜多尔，萨尔瓦多，刚果，埃塞俄比亚，加纳，瓜地马拉，几内亚，洪都拉斯，印度，印度尼西亚，肯尼亚，Laos，马拉维，莫桑比克，尼泊尔，尼加拉瓜，巴基斯坦，菲律宾，塞内加尔，塞拉利昂，斯里兰卡，多哥，乌干达，乌兹别克斯坦，越南，赞比亚，和津巴布韦33个国家.


SODIS projects are funded by, among others, the SOLAQUA Foundation,[34] several Lions Clubs, Rotary Clubs, Migros, and the Michel Comte Water Foundation.

SODIS项目的资金，来自SOLAQUA基金会，[34]几个狮子会，扶轮社，Migros，和米歇尔·孔德水基金。

SODIS has also been applied in several communities in Brazil, one of them being Prainha do Canto Verde, Beberibe west of Fortaleza. Villagers there using the SODIS method have been quite successful, since the temperature during the day can go beyond 40 °C (104 °F) and there is a limited amount of shade.[citation needed]

公共卫生工作者深入社区要考虑的重要的事情之一, 是教育社区当地水质对健康和疾病预防的重要性, 同时教这些水处理方法.
虽然对采取SODIS和其他水处理方法来生产日常用水有很多怀疑, 这给推广带来了挑战. 但传播这些方法对健康的益处的知识, 有助于推广SODIS


One of the most important things to consider for public health workers reaching out to communities in need of suitable, cost efficient, and sustainable water treatment methods is teaching the importance of water quality in the context of health promotion and disease prevention while educating about the methods themselves. Although skepticism has posed a challenge in some communities to adopt SODIS and other household water treatment methods for daily use, disseminating knowledge on the important health benefits associated with these methods will likely increase adoption rates.

其中最重要的事情要考虑公共卫生工作者深入到需要合适的，成本效益和可持续的水处理方法社区教于健康促进和疾病预防方面水质的重要性，而教育的内容与方法 他们自己。虽然怀疑已经对一些社区的一个挑战采取SODIS和其他家用水处理方法，日常使用，与这些方法相关的可能会增加采用率的重要健康益处传播知识。




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https://www6.slac.stanford.edu/news/2016-07-29-stanford-slac-play-key-role-new-doe-battery-consortium.aspx?from=singlemessage&isappinstalled=0

Stanford, SLAC Play Key Role in New DOE Battery Consortium
斯坦福和美国国家加速器实验室在新的DOE电池共同体里起着至关重要的作用
斯坦福和美国国家加速器实验室将推动新的DOE电池共同体？

‘Battery500’ to Develop New Technology for Electric Vehicles, Potentially Tripling Their Range and Lowering Their Cost
July 29, 2016
电池500共同体将推进电动汽车的新技术， 可望提升电动汽车的续航里程至三倍并降低成本。
2016年7月

王思淼
A newly formed Battery500 consortium, including researchers from Stanford University and the Department of Energy’s SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, will receive up to $10 million each year for the next five years to develop a new battery technology that could make electric vehicles go two to three times farther and make them less expensive. 新成立的电池500共同体，其成员包括来自斯坦福大学和能源部美国国家加速器实验室的研究人员，在未来的五年内，每年最高将获得一千万美元，以用于发展新的电池技术，以达到在降低电池价格的同时令电动汽车的续航里程提升两至三倍的目的。

洁宁：
新成立的电池500共同体，其成员包括来自斯坦福大学和能源部美国国家加速器实验室的研究人员。 在未来的五年内他们每年将获得高达一千万美元的资金用于发展新的电池技术，期望在降低电池价格的同时令电动汽车的续航里程提升两至三倍。

流言木雨
Support for Battery500 is one of several federal and private sector actions announced on July 21 by the Obama administration that aim to boost the spread and affordability of electric vehicles in the U.S. It is part of a broader effort to fight climate change, make clean energy widely accessible and reduce dependence on oil.
7月21日，奥巴马政府部门宣布，对电池500的支持是联邦和私人部门的数个活动之一，此活动旨在提高电动汽车在美国的普遍性和可购性。它是为抑制气候变化所做的的一部分努力，让清洁能源得到广泛使用从而减少对石油的依赖。

QishenH
Funded by the DOE’s Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, the consortium’s 11 partners – four national labs, five research universities and two companies – will be working on making smaller, lighter and cheaper batteries that can be seamlessly adopted by battery and car manufacturers.

机翻）通过能源效率和可再生能源的美国能源部办公室的资助下，该财团的11个合作伙伴 - 四个国家级实验室，五个研究大学和两家公司 - 将努力使可通过电池和汽车制造商可以无缝采用更小，更轻，更便宜的电池。
(修改）该协作组由四个国家级实验室，五所研究大学和两家公司合作组成。在美国能源部能源效率和可再生能源办公室的资助下，他们将致力于研究能和电池以及汽车制造商无缝对接的，更小巧，更轻质并且更加便宜的电池产品。


简单点
“Our goal is to extract every available drop of energy from battery materials while also producing a high-performance battery that is reliable, safe and less expensive,” says consortium director Jun Liu from the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), which leads the collaborative effort.

niche
SLAC Director Chi-Chang Kao says, “By looking at more efficient ways of storing and using energy, Battery500 addresses important societal challenges. A growing number of Stanford and SLAC researchers are working on improving battery materials, and we’re delighted that they’ll be able to share their expertise as members of the initiative.”

Taking Electric Transportation Further

Aijun
The consortium’s aggressive goal is to develop lithium batteries with two to three times the “specific energy” found in batteries that power today’s electric cars. Specific energy measures the amount of energy packed into a battery based on its weight. Because electric vehicles need to be lightweight to drive farther on a given charge, batteries with high specific energies are crucial.

老将
“At the moment, electric cars use batteries with a specific energy of about 170 to 200 watt-hours per kilogram of battery cell, with the most advanced technology reaching 250 watt-hours per kilogram,” says Stanford’s Steven Chu, chairman of Battery500’s advisory board. “If we wanted to build compact electric cars with a small footprint that go about 300 miles per charge, then we couldn’t do it with the current battery technology.”

飞鱼
That’s why the consortium wants to develop batteries with 500 watt-hours per kilogram (hence the name Battery500), which would allow manufacturers to shrink the size of future electric vehicles. It would also make current models go two to three times as far.

王思淼
In addition, a larger specific energy would also reduce the price of batteries and make electric cars more affordable.
除此之外，更高的能量密度也可以降低电池的价格，令电动汽车更实惠。

“These are very ambitious goals that will require a lot of R&D work,” says Battery500’s Co-Director Yi Cui from the Stanford Institute for Materials and Energy Sciences (SIMES), a joint institute of SLAC and Stanford. “We need to identify new battery technology that is currently not used in lithium-ion batteries.”

“这是一个非常宏伟的目标，将需要大量的研发工作，”来自斯坦福大学与美国国家加速器实验室的联合实验室——斯坦福材料与能源科学研究所（SIMES）的电池500共同体的联席主席崔毅说道，“我们需要找出目前未在锂离子电池中使用的新电池技术。”


Innovation through Collaboration

QishenH
The researchers hope to reach their goals by pairing the battery’s negative electrode, which will be made of lithium, with a positive one made of other materials. Cui’s research group and others will design, synthesize and test out a number of materials, study their properties and problems, and find ways to improve them.
研究人员希望通过用锂制作的负极与其他材料制作的正极进行配对达成他们的目标。崔的科研组和其他人将设计，合成并测试一系列的材料。研究它们的性质和缺陷，并想办法加以改进。


In this process, Battery500 will take advantage of a number of facilities, including SLAC’s Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource (SSRL). The DOE Office of Science User Facility generates intense X-rays that will be used to diagnose various battery materials on the nanoscale and under operating conditions.

A key focus of the consortium is to ensure that the technological solutions it develops meet the needs of car and battery manufacturers. While the project is ongoing, consortium members will work with industrial partners on the implementation of innovations.

Recognizing that diversity in experience and opinions often results in better solutions, the consortium will also set aside 20 percent of its annual budget to fund proposals from U.S. research groups outside the collaboration.

In addition to PNNL, Stanford and SLAC, Battery500 includes members from Brookhaven National Laboratory; Idaho National Laboratory; State University of New York, Binghamton; University of California, San Diego; University of Texas, Austin; University of Washington; and advisory board members from IBM and Tesla Motors, Inc.

Other Battery500 members from SLAC are the consortium’s operation deputy Mark Hartney and principal investigators Zhenan Bao and Michael Toney.

Editor’s note: Parts of this news feature are based on a press release issued by PNNL.

For questions or comments, contact the SLAC Office of Communications at communications@slac.stanford.edu.

SLAC is a multi-program laboratory exploring frontier questions in photon science, astrophysics, particle physics and accelerator research. Located in Menlo Park, Calif., SLAC is operated by Stanford University for the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science.

SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory is supported by the Office of Science of the U.S. Department of Energy. The Office of Science is the single largest supporter of basic research in the physical sciences in the United States, and is working to address some of the most pressing challenges of our time. For more information, please visit science.energy.gov.
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Biodegradable polymer-From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodegradable_polymer
Translated by Lekost、Sparrow、Miranda、Moyna Zhang、Monica、Cuihong、刘亚琴、Chenjie Ju、Leana

Biodegradable polymers are a specific type of polymer that breaks down after its intended purpose to result in natural byproducts such as gases (CO2, N2), water, biomass, and inorganic salts.These polymers are found both naturally and synthetically made, and largely consist of ester, amide, and ether functional groups. Their properties and breakdown mechanism are determined by their exact structure. These polymers are often synthesized by condensation reactions, ring opening polymerization, and metal catalysts. There are vast examples and applications of biodegradable polymers.
生物降解聚合物（亦称生物降解高分子）是一类在使用以后可以降解的聚合物，降解产生的产物主要是气体（如 CO₂、N₂） ，水，生物质和无机盐。 这些聚合物有天然形成的，也有人工合成的，它们主要由酯、酰胺和醚官能团组成，其性能和机理是由其特定结构决定。这些聚合物通常通过缩合反应、开环聚合、和金属催化剂等方式合成。有很多生物降解聚合物的例子和应用。

History
历史

Biodegradable polymers have a long history and since many are natural products, the precise timeline of their discovery and use cannot be accurately traced. One of the first medicinal uses of a biodegradable polymer was the catgut suture, which dates back to at least 100 AD. The first catgut sutures were made from the intestines of sheep, but modern catgut sutures are made from purified collagen extracted from the small intestines of cattle, sheep, or goats.

生物可降解聚合物由来已久，且许多都是天然产物。我们不能追溯它们的发现及使用的精确时间，而其已知的最早医药用途之一是羊肠线缝合，其历史至少可追溯至公元100年。第一条肠缝线由绵羊的肠制成，但现今的肠缝线是从牛，绵羊，或山羊的小肠提取的纯胶原蛋白制成。

The concept of synthetic biodegradable plastics and polymers was first introduced in the 1980s. In 1992, an international meeting was called where leaders in biodegradable polymers met to discuss a definition, standard, and testing protocol for biodegradable polymers. Also, oversight organizations such as American Society for Testing of Materials (ASTM) and the International Standards Organization (ISO) were created. Large clothing and grocery store chains have been making a push to utilize biodegradable bags in the late 2010s. Biodegradable polymers also received notice from various fields in 2012 when Professor Geoffrey Coates of Cornell University received the Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award. As of 2013, 5-10% of the plastic market focused on biodegradable polymer derived plastics.

合成生物降解塑料和聚合物的概念在20世纪80年代首次提出。 1992年，生物可降解聚合物的领军人物们举行了一次国际会议，讨论了生物可降解聚合物的定义，标准，以及检验规程。此外，美国材料与试验协会（ASTM）和国际标准化组织（ISO）也成立了相关监管机构。随着大型服装和百货连锁店的持续推广，生物可降解塑料袋在2010年底得到了广泛使用。2012年，美国康奈尔大学的杰弗里·科茨教授获得了美国总统绿色化学挑战奖，生物可降解聚合物也引起了多方关注。截至2013年，生物可降解聚合物制成的塑料在塑料市场的占比达到了5%-10％。

Structure and properties
结构和特性

The structure of biodegradable polymers are instrumental in their properties. While there are innumerable biodegradable polymers, both synthetic and natural, there are a few commonalities among them.

生物可降解聚合物的结构在它们的特性中起了重要作用。虽然有无数的生物可降解聚合物，但无论是合成的，还是天然的，它们之间都有一些共性。

Structure
结构

Biodegradable polymers tend to consist of ester, amide, or ether bonds. In general, biodegradable polymers can be grouped into two large groups based on their structure and synthesis. One of these groups is agro-polymers, or those derived from biomass.The other consists of biopolyesters, which are those derived from microorganisms or synthetically made from either naturally or synthetic monomers.

生物可降解聚合物往往由酯、酰胺或醚键组成。在一般情况下，生物可降解聚合物根据它们的结构和合成可分为两大类。一类是农业聚合物，或那些衍生自生物质的聚合物。另一类由生物聚酯组成（生物聚酯来源于微生物，或由天然单体或合成单体所合成）。





Biodegradable polymers organization based on structure and occurrence
基于结构和性状的生物可降解聚合物分类图

Agro-polymers include polysaccharides, like starches found in potatoes or wood, and proteins, such as animal based whey or plant derived gluten. Polysacharides consist of glycosidic bonds, which take a hemiacetal of a saccharide and binds it to a alcohol via loss of water. Proteins are made from amino acids, which contain various functional groups. These amino acids come together again through condensation reactions to form peptide bonds, which consist of amide functional groups. Examples of biopolyesters includes polyhydroxybutyrate and polylactic acid.

农业聚合物包括多糖（如来自土豆、木材中的淀粉）、蛋白质（如动物乳清或植物来源的谷蛋白）。多糖由糖苷键（糖苷键—由半糖半缩醛与醇类通过失水缩合而成）组成。蛋白质由包含各种官能团的氨基酸构成。这些氨基酸通过缩合反应形成由酰胺官能团组成的肽键重新聚合在一起。生物聚酯的实例包括聚酯和聚乳酸。

Properties
特性

Even though biodegradable polymers have numerous applications, there are properties that tend to be common among them. All biodegradable polymers should be stable and durable enough for use in their particular application, but upon disposal they should easily break down.Polymers, specifically biodegradable polymers, have extremely strong carbon backbones that are difficult to break, such that degradation often starts from the end-groups. Since the degradation begins at the end, a high surface areais common as it allows easy access for either the chemical, light, or organism. Biodegradable polymers also tend to have minimal chain branching as this cross linking often decreases the number of end groups per unit weight. Crystallinity is often low as it also inhibits access to end groups. A low degree of polymerization is normally seen, as hinted at above, as doing so allows for more accessible end groups for reaction with the degradation initiator. Another commonality of these polymers is their hydrophilicity. Hydrophobic polymers and end groups will prevent an enzyme from easily interacting if the water-soluble enzyme cannot easily get in contact with the polymer.

尽管生物可降解聚合物应用广泛，但是它们往往会有一些共同特性。所有的生物可降解聚合物在其特定应用时应该是足够稳定和耐用，而在处置它们时应该很容易分解。聚合物，特别是生物可降解聚合物，具有极强的难以分解的碳骨架，这种结构的降解往往需要从端基开始。由于降解从端基开始，生物可降解聚合物常常有高比表面，以便它更容易接触到（诱其降解的）化学物质，光照，或微生物。生物可降解聚合物往往具有极少的支链，因为这种交联往往会降低每单位重量的端基数量。因为结晶度也会抑制端基接近诱其降解的物质。根据如上所述，很容易推断出可降解聚合物应该具有低的聚合度，以便更多的端基与降解剂接触发生反应。这些聚合物的另一个共性是亲水性。如果水溶性酶难于接触到聚合物，疏水性聚合物和端基就会阻碍其与酶发生相互作用。

Other properties of biodegradable polymers that are common among those used for medicinal usages include
1.non-toxic,
2.capable of maintaining good mechanical integrity until degraded, and
3.apable of controlled rates of degradation.

医疗用途的生物可降解聚合物的其它共性包括：
1、无毒；
2、降解之前，能够保持良好的机械完整性；
3、能够控制降解率。

A goal is not to elicit the immune response, and the products of degradation also need not to be toxic. These are important as biodegradable polymers are used for drug delivery where it is critical to slowly release the drug into the body over time instead of all at once and that the pill is stable in the bottle until ready to be taken. Factors controlling the rate of degradation include: 1) percent crystallinity, 2) molecular weight, and 3) hydrophobicity. The degradation rate depends on the location in the body, which influences the environment surrounding the polymer such as pH, enzymes concentration, and amount of water among others.

医疗用途的生物可降解聚合物不能引发免疫反应，且降解产物必须无毒。当生物可降解聚合物用于给药时，这些特点很重要：给药过程中的关键是药物随着时间缓慢释放进入人体，而不是一次性的释放，且在人服用前药物在药丸内是稳定的。控制降解速率的因素包括：1）结晶度；2）分子量； 3）疏水性。降解速率取决于该聚合物在体内所处位置，所处位置能影响聚合物周围的环境因素，比如PH值、酶浓度和水量。

Synthesis
合成

One of the most important and most studied groups of biodegradable polymers are polyesters. Polyesters can be synthesized in a number of ways including direct condensation of alcohols and acids, ring opening polymerizations (ROP), and metal-catalyzed polymerization reactions. A great disadvantage of the step-wise polymerization via condensation of an acid and an alcohol is the need to continuously remove water from this system in order to drive the equilibrium of the reaction forward. This can necessitate harsh reaction conditions and long reaction times, resulting in a wide dispersity. A wide variety of starting materials can be used to synthesize polyesters, and each monomer type endows the final polymer chain with different characteristics and properties. The ROP of cyclic dimeric glycolic or lactic acid forms α-hydroxy acids which then polymerize into poly-(α-esters).A variety of organometallic initiators can be used to start the polymerization of polyesters, including tin, zinc, and aluminum complexes. The most common is tin(II)octanoate and has been approved as a food additive by the U.S. FDA, but there are still concerns about using the tin catalysts in the synthesis of biodegradable polymers for biomedical uses. The synthesis of poly(β-esters) and poly(γ-esters) can be carried out by similar ROP or condensation methods as with poly(γ-esters). Development of metal-free process that involve the use of bacterial or enzymatic catalysis in polyester formation is also being explored. These reactions have the benefit of generally being regioselective and stereospecific but suffer from the high cost of bacteria and enzymes, long reaction times, and products of low molecular weight.

聚酯是最重要和被研究得最多的生物可降解聚合物之一。有很多种方法可以合成聚酯，其中包括：醇和酸的直接缩合，开环聚合（ROP），金属催化的聚合反应。通过酸醇缩合的步进聚合反应有一个很大缺点：为了促进平衡反应的正向反应，需要持续不断的从系统中去除水分。这会造成苛刻的反应条件和长久的反应时间，从而导致了宽分散度。多种原料可用于合成聚酯，而原料中的各种不同的单体类型赋予了最终聚合物链不同的特征和性质。环状二聚体乙醇酸或乳酸的开环聚合构成α羟基酸，然后聚合成聚（α - 酯）。多种有机金属催化剂可用于聚酯的聚合反应，其中包括锡、锌和铝的化合物。最常见的是酸亚锡(辛酸锡(II)，已被美国食品药品监督管理局批准为食品添加剂，但作为锡催化剂而用于生物可降解聚合物（生物医学用途）的合成方面也广受关注。聚（β - 酯）和聚（γ-酯）的合成可以通过类似于开环聚合或聚（γ-酯）缩合反应的方式来进行。无金属工艺的发展也在探索中，包括在生成聚酯的过程中使用细菌或酶催化的工艺。上述这些反应得益于都有位置选择性和立体定向性，但是受限于细菌和酶的高成本，长久的反应时间，和低分子量的产品。






Example of routes to polyester formation using lactic acid. a) Condensation of lactic acid into dimeric lactide followed by ring-opening polymerization of to form poly(lactic acid); b) Direct condensation of lactic acid, demonstrating the need to continuously remove water from the system in order to drive the reaction forward.

示例：用乳酸合成聚酯的两个路径：一）乳酸缩合成二聚体的丙交酯后，随后开环聚合，以形成聚（乳酸）;二）乳酸的直接缩合，反应式表明，需要不断地从中去除水以保持缩合反应的顺利进行。

While polyesters dominate both the research and industrial focus on synthetic biodegradable polymers, other classes of polymers are also of interest. Polyanhydrides are an active area of research in drug delivery because they only degrade from the surface and so are able to release the drug they carry at a constant rate.Polyanhydrides can be made via a variety of methods also used in the synthesis of other polymers, including condensation, dehydrochlorination, dehydrative coupling, and ROP. Polyurethanes and poly(ester amide)s are used in biomaterials. Polyurethanes were initially used for their biocompatibility, durability, resilience, but are more recently being investigated for their biodegradability. Polyurethanes are typically synthesized using a diisocyanate, a diol, and a polymer chain extender. The initial reaction is carried out between the diisocyanate and the diol, with the diisocyanate in excess to ensure that the ends of the new polymer chain are isocyanate groups. This polymer can then be reacted with either a diol or a diamine to form urethane or urethane-urea end groups, respectively. The choice of terminal groups affects the properties of the resulting polymer. Additionally, the use of vegetable oil and biomass in the formation of polyurethanes, as well as the conversion of polyurethanes to polyols, is an active area of research.

在合成生物可降解聚合物的科研和工业化应用中，聚酯占据举足轻重的位置，同时，其它类聚合物的研究也得以促进。聚酐在给药研究中的应用也成为非常活跃的领域，因为它们只从表面降解，所以能以恒定的速率释放所携带的药物。聚酐的合成方法多种多样,这些方法（包括缩合，脱氯化氢，耦合和开环聚合）也被用于合成其它聚合物。聚氨酯和聚（酯酰胺）被用于生物材料。人们最初使用聚氨酯是因为它具有生物相容性、耐用性和韧性，但最近研究较多的却是它的生物降解性能。聚氨酯典型地由二异氰酸酯，二醇，和聚合物扩链剂合成。初始反应是在二异氰酸酯和二醇之间进行，其中二异氰酸酯过量，以确保新的聚合物链的端部形成异氰酸酯基团。然后这种聚合物可以和二醇反应形成聚氨酯；或与二胺反应形成聚氨酯脲基团。端部基团的选择会影响所得到的聚合物的性能。此外，在形成聚氨酯的反应中使用植物油和生物质，以及聚氨酯到多元醇的转化，也目前是非常活跃的研究领域。






Synthesis of polyurethane from a diisocyanate and a diol. To cap this polymer, chain extenders of either diols or diamines can be added in order to tailor the properties.

二异氰酸酯和二醇合成聚氨酯。为了合成这种聚合物，二元醇或胺的扩链剂都可为了调整性能而进行添加。

Mechanism of breakdown
降解机理

In general, biodegradable polymers break down to form gases, salts, and biomass.Complete biodegradation is said to occur when there are no oligomers or monomers left. The breakdown of these polymers depend on a variety of factors including the polymer and also, the environment the polymer is in. Polymer properties that influence degradation are bond type, solubility, and copolymers among others. The surrounding environment of the polymer is just as important as the polymer structure itself. These factors included items such as the pH, temperature, micoorganisms present, and water as just a few examples.

一般而言，生物可降解聚合物可以降解形成气体、盐类和生物质。彻底的生物可降解定义为没有任何残留低聚物或单体的存在。这些聚合物的降解取决于多种因素，包括聚合物本身以及聚合物所处的环境。影响聚合物降解的性质有键的类型，溶解度以及共聚物等。聚合物周围环境对降解的影响不亚于聚合物本身结构的影响。这些因素包括如pH值、温度、存在的微生物，水等等，这些仅仅只是一小部分因素。

There are two primary mechanisms through which biodegradation can occur. One is through physical decomposition through reactions such as hydrolysis and photodegradation, which can lead to partial or complete degradation.The second mechanistic route is through biological processes which can be further broken down into aerobic and anaerobic processes.The first involves aerobic biodegradition, where oxygen is present and important. In this case, the general equation seen below where Cresidue represents smaller fragments of the initial polymer such as oligomers.

生物降解主要通过两种机理。第一种是通过物理分解，例如通过水解和光降解的相互反应，水解和光降解可以实现部分或完全降解。第二种是通过生物过程降解，生物过程可进一步细分为有氧和厌氧过程。有氧过程涉及好氧生物降解，这一过程的发生是在氧气存在下进行的，并且氧气非常重要。这种情况下的一般方程式如下所示，其中，Cresidue代表初始的小聚合物如低聚物。






General equation for aerobic biodegradition
有氧生物降解的一般方程式

The second mechanism of biodegradation is by anaerobic processes, where oxygen is not present.
生物降解的第二种机理是没有氧气存在的厌氧过程。





General equation for anaerobic biodegradition
厌氧生物降解的一般方程式

There are numerous organisms that have the ability to break down natural polymers. There are also synthetic polymers that have only been around for a hundred years with new features that microorganisms do not have the capability to break down. It will take millions of years before organisms can adapt to degrade all of these new synthetic polymers.[citation needed] Typically, after physical processes carry out the initial breakdown of the polymer, microorganisms will then take what is left and break down the components into even simpler units. These microorganisms normally take polymer fragments, such as oligomers or monomers, into the cell where enzymes work to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and polymer end products carbon dioxide, nitrogen gas, methane, water, minerals, and biomass. These enzymes act in a variety of ways to break down polymers including through oxidation or hydrolysis. Examples of key enzymes include proteases, esterases, glycosidases, and manganese peroxidases.

有许多生物体具备分解天然聚合物的能力。也有一些人工合成聚合物，虽然仅仅存在近百年，但由于它拥有一些新的特征，微生物不能分解它们。待有机物能够适应并降解这些新的合成聚合物可能需要数百万年。[引文需要]通常情况下，在初始聚合物进行物理降解之后，微生物将其 进一步分解为更小的单元。这些微生物通常将聚合物片段（如低聚物或单体）分解为酶可以作用的单元，使三磷酸腺苷（ATP）和聚合物发生反应，最终产物为：二氧化碳、氮气、甲烷、水、矿物质和生物质。这些酶通过氧化或水解等多种方式分解聚合物。重要的酶包括蛋白酶、酯酶、糖苷酶、锰过氧化物酶。

Applications and uses
应用和使用

Biodegradable polymers are of significant interest to a variety of fields including medicine, agriculture, and packaging. One of the most active areas of research in biodegradable polymer is in controlled drug delivery and release.

生物可降解聚合物对于很多领域都有着重大意义，包括医药、农业和包装。其中药物的传输与释放是生物可降解聚合物中最为活跃的研究领域之一。

Medical
医疗

Biodegradable polymers have an innumerable uses in the biomedical field, particularly in the fields of tissue engineering and drug delivery. In order for a biodegradable polymer to be used as a therapeutic, it must meet several criteria: 1) be non-toxic in order to eliminate foreign body response; 2) the time it takes for the polymer to degrade is proportional to the time required for therapy; 3) the products resulting from biodegredation are not cytotoxic and are readily eliminated from the body; 4) the material must be easily processed in order to tailor the mechanical properties for the required task; 5) be easily sterilized; and 6) have acceptable shelf life.

生物可降解聚合物在生物医学领域具有广泛的用途，特别是在组织工程和给药领域。为了将生物可降解聚合物用于医疗，它必须满足若干标准：1）为了消除身体的异物反应，它必须是无毒的; 2）聚合物降解所花费时间正比于治疗所需时间; 3）降解后的产品都没有细胞毒性，并且易于从体内消除; 4）该材料必须很容易加工，以便易于为需要的尺寸量身剪裁; 5）易于消毒; 6）具有可接受的贮存寿命。

Biodegradable polymers are of great interest in the field of drug delivery and nanomedicine. The great benefit of a biodegradable drug delivery system is the ability of the drug carrier to target the release of its payload to a specific site in the body and then degrade into nontoxic materials that are then eliminated from the body via natural metabolic pathways. The polymer slowly degrades into smaller fragments, releasing a natural product, and there is controlled ability to release a drug. The drug slowly releases as polymer degrades. For example, polylactic acid, poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid, and poly(caprolactone), all of which are biodegradable, have been used to carry anti-cancer drugs. Encapsulating the therapeutic in a polymer and adding targeting agents decreases the toxicity of the drug to healthy cells.

生物可降解聚合物在给药和纳米医疗领域引起了很大的关注。生物可降解给药系统的巨大好处是药物载体能够有效定位到身体的特定部位，并且降解成可以通过人体自然的代谢途径排出的无害物质。该聚合物慢慢降解成更小的片段，释放出天然产物，并且可控制药物的释放。在聚合物降解的过程中，药物缓慢释放。例如，聚乳酸，聚（乳酸 - 共 - 乙醇酸）和聚（己内酯），这些都是可生物降解的，已被用于携带抗癌药物。药物被包封在聚合物中，并添加靶标剂，以减小药物对健康细胞的毒性。






Sutures made from polyglycolic acid. These sutures are absorbable and will be degraded by the body over time.

缝合线是由聚乙醇酸制成的。这些缝合线可被人体吸收，并逐步在体内降解。

Biodegradable polymers and biomaterials are also of significant interest for tissue engineering and regeneration. Tissue engineering is the ability to regenerate tissue with the help of artificial materials. The perfection of such systems can be used to grow tissues and cells in vitro or use a biodegradable scaffold to construct new structures and organs in vitro. For these uses, a biodegradable scaffold is obviously preferred as it reduces the risk of immunological reaction and rejection of the foreign object. While many of the more advanced systems are not ready for human therapeutics, there is significant positive research in animal studies. For example, it was possible to successfully grow rat smooth muscle tissue on a polycaprolactone/polylactide scaffold. Further research and development may allow for this technology to be used for tissue replacement, support, or enhancement in humans. One of the ultimate goals of tissue engineering is the creation of organs, such as the kidney, from basic constituents. A scaffolding is necessary to grow the entity into a functioning organ, after which the polymer scaffold would degrade and be safely eliminated from the body. There are reports of using polyglycolic acid and polylactic acid to engineer vascular tissue for heart repair. The scaffold can be used to help create undamaged arteries and vessels.

生物可降解聚合物和生物材料对于组织工程和再生工程也具有重大的意义。组织工程就是借助人工材料实现再生组织的能力。完善的系统可用来在体外进行组织和细胞的生长或者使用生物可降解支架在体外构造新的结构和器官。为此目的，生物可降解支架具有明显优势，因为它降低了免疫反应和异物排斥的风险。许多更先进的系统还不具备用于人类治疗的条件，但在动物实验的研究中表现出非常积极的效果。例如，在聚己内酯/聚乳酸支架上可以成功生长大鼠平滑肌组织。进一步的研究和发展可能使这种技术用于人类组织的替代，支持或增强。组织工程的最终目标之一是从基本组织生成器官，如肾脏。使基本组织长成为一个功能性器官的过程需要一个支架，然后聚合物支架会降解，并安全地排出体外。有文献报道使用聚乙二醇酸和聚乳酸生成血管组织以治疗心脏病。所述的支架可用于帮助创建未受损的动脉血管。

In addition to tissue engineering, biodegradable polymers are being used orthopedic applications, such as bone and joint replacement. A wide variety of non-biodegradable polymers have been used for orthopedic applications including silicone rubber, polyethylene, acrylic resins, polyurethane, polypropylene, and polymethylmethacrylate. The primary role of many of these polymers was to act as a biocompatible cement in the fixation of prostheses and in the replacement of joints. Newer biologically compatible synthetic and natural biodegradable polymers have been developed; these include polyglycolide, polylactide, polyhydroxobutyrate, chitosan, hyaluronic acid, and hydrogels. In particular, poly(2-hydroxyethyl-methacrylate), poly(ethylene glycol),chitosan, and hyaluronic acid have been used extensively in the repair of cartilage, ligaments, and tendons. For example, poly(L-lactide) (PLA), is used to make screws and darts for meniscal repair and is marketed under the trade name Clearfix Mensical Dart/Screw. PLA is a slow degrading polymer and requires times greater than two years to degrade and be absorbed by the body.

除了组织工程，生物可降解聚合物还用于整形外科，如骨和关节的置换，多种非生物降解的聚合物应用于整形外科，包括硅橡胶，聚乙烯，丙烯酸树脂，聚氨酯，聚丙烯和聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯。多数这类聚合物的主要作用是作为固定假体和置换关节的生物相容性胶合剂。已经研发了较新的合成和天然的生物相容的生物可降解聚合物，包括聚乙交酯，聚乳酸，壳聚糖，透明质酸和水凝胶。特别是，聚（2-羟乙基甲基丙烯酸酯），聚（乙二醇），壳聚糖，透明质酸已经在软骨，韧带和肌腱修复中广泛使用。例如，聚（L-丙交酯）（PLA），商品名为Clearfix Mensical达特/螺杆，用来制造用于半月板修复的螺钉和飞镖。聚乳酸是一种缓慢降解的聚合物，并且需要两年以上的时间降解和被人体吸收。
Packaging and materials
包装及材料






A trash bag made of a poly(lactic acid) blend, marketed under the brand Bio-Flex®
In addition to medicine, biodegradable polymers are often used to reduce the volume of waste in packaging materials.There is also significant effort to replace materials derived from petrochemicals with those that can be made from biodegradable components. One of the most commonly used polymers for packaging purposes is polylactic acid, PLA. The production of PLA has several advantages, the most important of which is the ability to tailor the physical properties of the polymer through processing methods. PLA is used for a variety of films, wrappings, and containers (including bottles and cups). In 2002, FDA ruled that PLA was safe to use in all food packaging.BASF markets a product called Ecovio® which is a blend of the company's biodegradable plastic Ecoflex® and PLA.An application for this biodegradable material is for thin plastic films such as shopping bags or trash bags.

一种用聚乳酸共混物制备的垃圾袋，以注册商标为Bio-Flex品牌推向了市场。除了医疗领域，生物可降解聚合物经常用于减少包装材料的浪费。在用生物降解材料取代石化衍生材料的方面人们付出了极大的努力。包装材料最常用的聚合物之一是聚乳酸PLA。聚乳酸产品具有几个优点，其中最重要的优点是可以通过加工方法得到需要的聚合物物理性质。 PLA是用于各种薄膜，包装材料和容器（包括瓶子和杯子）。 2002年，FDA裁定PLA用于食品包装方面是安全的。BASF销售的商品名称为Ecovio的产品，是该公司的可降解塑料Ecoflex树脂和PLA的混合体。这种生物降解材料的应用之一是制备塑料薄膜：如购物袋或垃圾袋。

Notable examples
著名例子

2012 Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge
2012年美国总统绿色化学挑战奖






Carbon dioxide directly used in a polymer backbone
图示：二氧化碳直接用于聚合物主链

Each year hundreds of millions of tons of plastics are produced from petroleum.Most of these plastics will remain in landfills for years to come or litter the environment posing significant health risks to animals; however, the average person's lifestyle would be impractical without them (see Applications). One solution to this conundrum lies in biodegradable polymers. These polymers have the distinct advantage that over time they will break down. Dr. Geoffrey Coates headed research to create catalysts that can not only efficiently create these biodegradable polymers, but the polymers also incorporate the greenhouse gas and global warming contributor, CO2, and, environmentally present ground-ozone producer, CO. These two gases can be found or produced in high concentrations from agricultural waste, coal, and industrial applications as byproducts.Not only do the catalysts utilize these normally wasted and environmentally unfriendly gases, but they also do it extremely efficiently with high turnover numbers and frequencies in addition to good selectivity.These catalysts have been actively used by Novomer Inc to make polycarbonates that can replace the current coating bisphenol A (BPA) found in many food and drink packaging. Novomer's analysis shows that if used in all cases, these biodegradable polymer coatings could not only sequester, but also avoid further production of CO2 in hundreds of millions of metric tons in just a single year.

人们每年都会从石油中生产出数以百万吨的塑料。在接下来的数年里，大部分塑料停留在垃圾填埋场，或废弃于周围环境并给动物的健康带来巨大风险。然而，普通人的生活中不使用塑料是不切实际的。一种解决的办法就是使用生物可降解聚合物。这些聚合物具有独特的优势，就是随着时间的推移会可降解。杰弗里·科茨博士（Dr. Geoffrey Coates）引领了降解催化剂的研究领域，研制的催化剂不仅能有效生产出生物可降解聚合物，生产的聚合物还能吸收使全球变暖的温室气体二氧化碳，以及地面臭氧产生者一氧化碳。这两种气体常常以高浓度的形态存在于或产生于农业废弃物，煤炭以及工业副产品中。上述催化剂不仅能够利用这些常见的环境不友好的废气，不但选择性好，吸收废气的数量和频率也非常有效。这些催化剂已经由诺沃莫公司（Novomer Inc.) 用来制造聚碳酸酯，用以替代许多食品和饮料包装中的涂层酚甲烷（双酚A）。诺沃莫公司分析表明: 如广泛使用，这些生物可降解聚合物涂层不仅可以结合二氧化碳，更避免了每年数以百万吨二氧化碳的产生。 查看全部

我们要系统性地翻译Wiki条目及相关动态

Wiki 条目 – 可再生能源方面

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation
可再生能源的最大目标是延缓并最终解决气候变化的趋势
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_use (translating by Jingjing Cheng)
提高能源效率是最重要的节能和环保手段
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_renewable_energy_topics
涵盖了几乎所有的可再生能源的条目
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy
可再生能源的综述
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainable_energy
可持续能源与可再生能源有重叠
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity
(已有中文条目) 水力发电是最早应用的可再生能源，也是目前最大的可再生能源 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_solar_energy
除了核能之外，几乎所有的能源都是太阳能
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photovoltaics
光伏发电 – 中国已经成为最主要的生产和应用大国
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_heat
可再生的热能应用
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_thermal_energy
可再生热能，与上面的条目有所重叠
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_water_heating
太阳能热水器，中国应用最成功的领域
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_power
风能， 中国的弃风问题非常严重
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomass
(已经有中文条目) 生物质能源，比较分散，能源密度低，难于应用
http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/04/genetically-modified-mosquitoes-zika/479793/ 转基因蚊子 查看全部

资源回收，回收，再循环（Recycling）

维基百科，自由的百科全书 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycling translated by 程晶晶 碧水蓝天环保协会

资源回收就是将废弃物中的有用材料分离出来，重新加以有效利用，以防止潜在的浪费。

资源回收可以降低产品原料的消耗，可以降低能耗。在传统的垃圾处理方法当中，垃圾焚

烧和垃圾填埋会造成空气、水和土壤的污染，资源回收可以有效减少这些污染。再比如塑

料生产过程中会产生大量的温室气体，资源回收则可以降低塑料的产量从而有效的减少温

室气体排放。资源回收是现代化社会中，减少垃圾产生的关键方法，也是

“3R（Reduce, Reuse and Recycle）”环保理念当中的第三个R（Recycling）。

ISO标准中有一些是针对资源回收制定的，比如ISO 15270:2008是针对塑料废物而制定的标

准，ISO 14001:2004是针对资源回收实践过程中环境管理控制而制定的标准。

可回收材料包括各种玻璃，纸，金属，塑料，轮胎，纺织品和电子产品。将生物可降解垃

圾进行堆肥或者再利用也属于回收范畴，其中生物可降解垃圾指的是食品残渣或者园艺废

料。

可回收垃圾是如何处理的呢？通常，可回收垃圾可以从路边收集起来，再送往可回收垃圾

处理中心，然后经过分类，清洁，和一些处理，变成可以再次加工制造成产品的原材料。

严格来说，资源回收其实是指将用过的物品转变成相同的物品再次使用的过程。 例如，使

用过的办公用纸应该被转变成新的办公用纸，或者使用过的聚苯乙烯泡沫应该被转变成新

的聚苯乙烯泡沫。但是这个转变过程通常被认为非常困难，或者不具备经济可行性（从原

料或者其他材料生产出的产品更加便宜）。所以“资源回收”这个概念，现在变得更加灵活

，比如将用过的物品，转变成其他的物品，再加以利用，也叫“资源回收”。举个例子，

将废纸制成卡纸板，就属于“资源回收”。

资源回收的另外一个形式，是指从废品中回收某些特定的成分或材料。比如从汽车电池中

回收铅，或者从电路板中回收金，因为这些材料十分昂贵，可以带来可观的经济利益。而

废品中的有毒或有害成分，也必须被回收，比如温度计或者恒温器中的汞。

By J Cheng, Clean Water Blue Sky Association

Recycling

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into reusable objects to prevent

waste of potentially useful materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw

materials, energy usage, air pollution (from incineration) and water pollution

(from landfilling) by decreasing the need for &quot;conventional&quot; waste disposal and

lowering greenhouse gas emissions compared to plastic production. [1][2] Recycling is a key

component of modern waste reduction and is the third component of the

&quot;Reduce, Reuse and Recycle&quot; waste hierarchy.

There are some ISO standards related to recycling such as ISO 15270:2008 for plastics

waste and ISO 14001:2004 for environmental management control of recycling practice.

Recyclable materials include many kinds of glass, paper, metal, plastic, tires, textiles

and electronics. The composting or other reuse ofbiodegradable waste—such

as food or garden waste—is also considered recycling. [2] Materials to be recycled are

either brought to a collection centre or picked up from the curbside, then sorted, cleaned

and reprocessed into new materials destined for manufacturing.

In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same

material—for example, used office paper would be converted into new office paper, or

used polystyrene foam into new polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too

expensive (compared with producing the same product from raw materials or other

sources), so &quot;recycling&quot; of many products or materials involves their reuse in producing

different materials (for example, paperboard) instead. Another form of recycling is

the salvage of certain materials from complex products, either due to their intrinsic value

(such as lead from car batteries, or gold from circuit boards), or due to their hazardous

nature (e.g., removal and reuse of mercury fromthermometers and thermostats). 查看全部